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One of the earliest lawmakers in the history
of civilization is the Babylonian king, Hammurabi (1728-1686 B.C.. A total
of 282 laws known as the code of Hammurabi have been recognized. (1) The
code clearly illustrates its influence in the Judaic and Islamic laws.
Law no: 218 states: “If a physician performed
a major operation on a seignior with bronze lancet and caused the
seignior’s death, or he opened up the eye-socket of a seignior and has
destroyed the seignior’s eye, they shall cut off his hand”.
This law demonstrates that how much the
generations of medical professionals have sacrificed to bring the science
of medicine to our modern time. Physicians have lost lives when the
result of treatment has been less than satisfactory. Even in the advanced
societies physicians have lost court battles and good reputation for a
poor outcome, even though they had no control over the course of events.
Law no: 218 and 194, 195, 205, 226, and 282
recommend amputation of a limb or an organ as a punishment for various
crimes, and they vividly indicate influence of Babylonian legal texts on
the Islamic code.
Science and medicine in the Gathas:
The teachings of Zarathushtra are general. He neither comes forward
with commands and taboos, nor does set up legal code. Laws have to change
according to the time and the needs of society. Religious laws however
are regarded as divine and immutable, consequently although in the
beginning they improve the society, but over the long period of time can
become a source of stagnation. In recent years some societies have
attempted to revive and practice the old religious code, but they have
faced a dilemma. On the one hand those statutes are divine and immutable
and on the other, they are not practical in modern times. It is
worthwhile mentioning that although Zarathushtra in the Gathas alludes to
the law of Asha, nevertheless this law is not a specific one, rather a
general term implying cause and effect, action and reaction: ”Happiness
comes to the person who radiates happiness to others…”Y43.1-51.8
From the text of Gathas we learn that the
prophet is in search of knowledge and truth, and the means of approaching
that is wisdom. The wise should spread the knowledge (Y31.17); the
wrongful should be guided and delivered in the hands of righteousness
(Y44.12); clean environment and health are the best for living world
(Y48.5)”Purity for man from birth is best”; consumption of substances that
cause drunkenness and loss of wisdom is prohibited (Y32.14, 48.10)
We can conclude that Gathas emphasize
acquiring science and knowledge; science should be disseminated and not
monopolized. Health and sanitation are important and intoxicants and
wisdom wasting substances ought to be avoided.
The other aspect of the teachings of
Zarathushtra is attainment of spiritual perfection (Haorvatat) and
immortality of the soul (Amretat). He inculcates in his audience how to
achieve serenity (Aramaiti). This final goal can be fulfilled through the
power of mind (Vohu Manah) and acquisition of spiritual strength (Khshathra,
to overcome vices), in order to discover the Truth (Asha) and realize
God. Zarathushtra in Y43.15 discovers that silent meditation is the best
for attainment of spiritual enlightenment at which point one can envision
the Light of God (Y43.4, 43.9). The prophet introduces the concept of two
mentalities, and freedom of choice to choose between good and evil through
the wisdom of good mind.
As much as in other religions “heart” is
considered to be the organ of thinking, in the teachings of Zarathushtra
“mind” is the center of thoughts. Even heaven and hell are the two states
of mind; heaven is equated with the spiritual relief and hell indeed is
the inner torment. Zarathushtra also presents the terms: conscience (Daena),
voice of conscience (Sraosha), soul (Urva)(Y51.13) and bliss (Ushta or
absolute happiness, spiritual relief, ecstasy). In the Gathas, the mind
sets the conscience and conscience guides the soul. The separation of the
souls (good or evil) poetically is called the sorting bridge (Chinovato
Pereto).
These profound spiritual words, along with the
extent of serenity that readers find in the Gathas, may make them wonder
”aside from being a prophet and spiritual leader, was Zarathushtra a soul
healer or in contemporary term psychotherapist?” Although Gathas teach
that the followers of Asha (Ashavan) should enjoy happiness in this world
and improve the living world, nevertheless the spiritual aspects of the
book always prevail, as this goal is achievable by attaining the spiritual
excellence.
What about the later Avestan Books?
In Vendidad fargard 20(1-14) all the herbal plants that remove
sickness have been praised. Various parts of the plants were used: root,
stem, scale, leaves, fruit and seeds. They were used in the following
forms:
1-Fresh
2-Extracted Juice
3- Boiled
4- Oil extracted for rubbing on skin
5- Burned on fire for incense or inhalation therapy
6- Ground seeds in the form of granules or powder
Due to their beneficial effects, these plants
were later consecrated and entered liturgy.
A plant or flower was assigned to Ahura Mazda
and each of His divine attributes and later to the thirty days of the
month (2). To this day, seven plants and flowers representing Ahura Mazda
and Amesha Spenta decorate the Nouruz ‘haft chin’ (seven items from
plants) table, which was later called the ‘haft seen’(seven items
beginning with the letter seen, or ‘S’) table.
To Ahura Mazda was assigned myrthous (Avesta:
mourtah, Persian: mourd containing Niaoluie); to Amretat, iris (containing
aromatic oil); to Mithra or Mehr, mandragore (Av: mithrogia, Per: mehrgiah,
containing Belladona); to Dai-pa-din, Fengreek ( Fengrec, Av: Shanbarid,
Per: Shanbalilleh containing Fengene); to Sraosha, Solace ( containing
Atropine); to Ashtad, Opiace ( containing Morphine); to Zamyad, Haoma or
Ephedra Vulgaris.
Several plants are discussed hereunder:
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Haoma (Ephedra Vulgaris, Soma in
Hindu Rig Veda)- This plant is indigenous to the Iranian plateau and its
scientific name is EphedraVulgaris. Haoma contains large dose of
Ephedrine, which is effective in the treatment of cardiovascular and
respiratory diseases. It is a small plant with yellow flowers.
Conceivably due to various therapeutic effects, it was consecrated and
entered the rituals of the pre-Zoroastrian faith, and a Yasht was
composed and devoted to it. But Haoma was not used only in herbal
medicine and soon another effect was recognized. A juice made of Haoma
(prahum), was intoxicant and caused drunkenness. Some authors maintain
that Ephedra Vulgaris and the intoxicant Haoma are two different plants
(3). The text of the Gathas clearly indicates that in the rituals of
the pre-Zoroastrian faith it was consumed by the princes (Kavis) and
priests (Karapans), and caused them to behave irrationally.
Zarathushtra has derided and condemned the Haoma ritual by mentioning
its epithets as invincible (!), and wisdom wasting (Dura Osham)(Y32.14)
and intoxicant (Madahya)(Y48.10)
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Mixture of Garlic and Rue (Per: Seer and
Sedab)-used in Zoroastrian rituals. The therapeutic effects of
garlic are well known; it lowers cholesterol, reduces blood pressure and
also is used to combat heart disease and treat infections.
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Rue was known to the ancient world.
In Talmud, the ancient book of Hebrew, rue was considered such an
important healing agent that it declared no tith (tax) should be imposed
on it. It is mentioned once in the Bible (Luke11:42) as an herb to be
taxed. The Parthian king, Mithradates (132-62 BCE), in order to prevent
suffering the same fate of his competitors by poison, took daily
quantities of opium, aconite and other poisons to build up resistance.
This is known as Mithradates’ antitoxin therapy. He also used rue as
the primary ingredient of his antidote formulas.
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Rue was once popular remedy for earache; it
was strewn about the house to deter fleas. It was also an ingredient in
the famous Four Thieves used to thwart the plague during the middle
ages. Rue was used to ease shaking fits of agues or joint pain.
Avicenna (980-1,037 CE) recommended a mixture of frankincense and rue to
be rubbed on the head for the treatment of some types of headaches (4).
In the contemporary herbal medicine it is used to relieve gout,
rheumatic pain, palpitation, stomach disorder, dizziness, tension
headache, cough and to regulate menstrual cycle and eliminate intestinal
worms.
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Bangha ( Avesta: bhangh, Sanskrit:
bhanga, Persian: Bang, hashish)- It is extracted from the seeds of
Canabis Indica (hempseed or Per: shahdaneh)(5)(6) has hallucinating
effects. In ancient Iran it was mixed with wine to deliver anesthesia.
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Frankincense (Per: Kondor, Av:
Vohugaona, Pahlavi: Hugvan containing benzoid)- used for inhalation
therapy.
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Aloeswood (Per: Ood, Av:Vohukaratah,
Pah: Hukarat, containing camphor), useful for cardiac disease and to
treat irregular heartbeat(7).
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It is worth mentioning that antitoxin in
Avesta is called Paiti and indicates plants that can treat the
effects of different toxins. The following herbal plants recognized in
ancient Iran still are prescribed: Borage (Per: Gavzaban),
Sweet Marjoram (Per: Marzangoosh), Fengreek (Per:
Shanbalilleh) and Chicory (Per: Kassni).
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Bull’s Urine in the book of Vendidad-
Vendidad is mainly an ancient scientific book and sanitary
dispensation to prevent the epidemics of infectious diseases.
Composition of this book has been initiated at the era of Xerxes
(486-465 B.C.) Darius’ son, and completed during the reign of
Mithradates of Parthian dynasty (8)
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Bull’s urine due to high acidity has
antibacterial effect. In ancient times it was used as an antiseptic
agent for the treatment of infection and for the prevention of
epidemics. Apparently due to its effectiveness in preventing the
dissemination of deadly contagious diseases, received a peculiar
attention. In Vendidad it has a prominent place in sanitation and
prevention of infections. Utilization of bull’s urine by different
Hindu tribes and camel’s urine by Moslems has been reported (9). In
Vendidad according to fargard 5 (54,56) bull’s urine and fresh water
were equally used for purification. Generally preservation of clean
environment or by contemporary term, ecology has been strongly
emphasized. In particular pollution of four elements of nature: water,
soil, air and fire are to be avoided. Based on this concept, Vendidad
suggests that the land where the corpse was laid on will be clean after
one year, and the land where the corpse was buried will be pure after
fifty years, fargard 7(46,48). In the old times some lands were known
to cause infection (the cursed lands). People by walking or injuring
there would develop anthrax. After discovery of bacteria it was
determined that these lands were the old burial grounds of the corpses
contaminated with the disease.
Proof of Proficiency or Medical license:
According to the Vendidad physicians for the proof of proficiency had
to cure three patients from the followers of Divyasnan and if they failed
they could not practice medicine. At the first glance this recommendation
may appear discriminative and based on human experimentation. But some
authors have construed that from the beginning physicians were taught to
remove the mental barrier and treat adversaries as well as friends (10)
(11). The next stanza, fargard 7 (40), exerts a positive balance toward
their opinion as it suggests: “afterwards at his wish he may give medicine
to a Mazdayasnan to restore to health, at his wish operate on a
Mazdayasnan, at his wish operate to cure”. An important observation is
that nowhere Vendidad recommends that physicians after proof of competency
should exclusively treat patients who were Mazdayasnan. In fact none of
the Avestan scriptures make any discriminative recommendation in regard to
treatment of patients. In general, science and medicine in Avesta
transcend the barriers of class, ethnicity, nationality, race, gender and
religion. Vendidad further recommends “If a stranger, friend, brother or
coreligionist came to you for education, receive him and teach whatever he
asks” fargard 4 (44).
It is interesting that physician’s fee for
service is based on the patient’s income and the fee for treating a priest
is his pious blessing, fargard 7 (41). Fargard 7 (44) even discusses
meeting and consultation among the three groups of physicians: those who
operate (surgeons), those who treat by herbs (internists) and the ones who
cure by holy words (psychiatrists). This may indicate a form of medical
association of its time.
Ardibehesht Yasht- In this Yasht the
classification of physicians is even more advanced:
-
Asho Baeshazo (sanitary physician), who
prevents dissemination of contagious disease.
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Urvaro Baeshazo (herbal physician), or
internist, who treats the patients by herbal medicine.
-
Karato Baeshazo (knife-physician), or
surgeon.
-
Dato Baeshazo
(law-physician), equivalent of a coroner or the one who practices
forensic medicine.
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Manthra
Baeshazo (holy word-physician), who cures by holy words, equivalent of
psychiatrist. Manthra physician has a very prominent place among the
physicians.
Caesarian
Section or Rostamian Operation?
Delivery of a newborn baby
through abdominal operation worldwide is called Caesarian Section.
It is named after Julius Caesar who is believed was born through the
abdominal route. But this view has been contested, because long after the
Caesar’s era no woman survived the operation. However there is evidence
that his mother lived long after giving birth to Julius. By another
version the Lex Caesarus, the ancient Roman Empire code of law required
the surgical removal of a baby from the abdomen of its dead mother, thus
giving us the term, Caesarian Section (12).
Long before
Julius Caesar, according to Shah Nameh, Rostam was delivered by abdominal
surgery. Ferdowsi skillfully explains how Rostam’s mother, Rudabeh
underwent the operation:
An expert
Mobed arrived
By the wine made the moon-faced (beautiful Rudabeh) drunken
(anesthetized)
Without pain
her side was cut open
He brought the boy’s head in view (delivered the head)
It was done so
harmlessly
That no one had seen such a marvel
Shah Nameh and
events of Rostam’s delivery indicate that Mobeds were also practicing
physicians.
Najmabadi
suggests that delivery of an infant through the abdominal route should be
renamed “The Rostamian Operation”(13).
Science in
Avesta and later era:
The 21 books of Avesta during the
Achaemenians encompassed 815 chapters, thus by volume it was three times
larger than the compiled books of Sassanian era. These books in effect
were the encyclopedia of science consisting of medicine, astronomy, law,
social science, philosophy, general knowledge, logic and biology.
Science (Chista)
and Knowledge occupy a prominent place in the Zoroastrian doctrine. Yasht
16, Dinyasht karda 1(1) is the best witness: “We revere the most
righteous, true knowledge created by Mazda, the holy, leading to righteous
path, quick progressing in the best manner, bringing righteous dedication,
morally good, purifying the self…” By these words only the sciences that
promote the living world toward perfection are revered, not the ones that
annihilate man’s civilization. In Yasht 16, karda 1(2) Zarathushtra’s
love for science and knowledge in a poetical elegance is declared:
“Zarathushtra revered science, rise from your seat, come forward from your
abode, you most righteous true knowledge, created by holy Mazda…If you are
before me, there wait for me, if you are behind me, there overtake me”.
By studying Dinyasht and other Avestan scriptures, one can conclude that
based on the Zoroastrian tenets, science and religion know no border, as
they belong to humankind beyond the class, nationality, race and creed.
Dinyasht concludes with the following words: “May the knowledge as extent
and fame of commandments of the Mazdayasni religion ever increase over the
world, over all the seven regions”.
According to the
Avestan texts, men and women have an equal responsibility in disseminating
the knowledge: “Whatever a man or woman knows that is good and right, not
only should practice but inform others to perform accordingly…” The same
equality exists in regard to propagation of religion. In Yasna 68(12), an
expression of good wish and support is made for all the women and men,
girls and boys who strive for good deeds and propagation of the Path of
Truth.
Famous
physicians in Avesta and medical schools:
It is interesting that Farvardin
Yasht, Karda 25 (97), reveres the fravashi of Saena a knowledgeable
physician with hundred pupils that denote the existence of medical
school. It is said that Saena Poure Ahumstute was a student of
Zarathushtra who founded the school of Ekbatan. Plutarch (45-125 CE)
writes that he personally studied in the university and various topics of
philosophy, astronomy, medicine and geography were taught and hundred
pupils educated there. Also Vendidad, fargard 20 (2) names Thrita
as the first man skillful in the art of healing wounds who was also
acquainted with how to prevent the sickness as well as to repel the
disease and fever. FarvardinYasht, K131, reveres the Fravashi of
Thraetona (Thrita)(Freidoon) of the Athwya (Abteen) house for offering
resistance to itches, fever, ague, treating snakebite… Also according to
tradition, Yama was able to isolate the patients suffering from
skin, bone and dental diseases.
The second
Ekbatan university was founded in the early establishment of the Median
Empire (715 BCE) by a group of Mobed-physicians. For the first time the
graduates had to obtain license in order to practice medicine.
The famous Achaemenid Medical School:
Considering the Zoroastrian teachings, it
is not surprising that the famous historically documented medical school
was founded and financed by Darius The Great (522-486 BCE) in Egypt. It
was located next to the temple of Neith and named Saiis. The graduates
will scatter all over the empire. The Egyptian director of the school,
Ujahorus was a scientist. On his statue that is maintained in Vatican the
following words have been inscribed: “Darius the great king ordered that I
shall return to Egypt and rebuild the Neith Temple…I provided books and
educated the youth and brought them instruments. King realized the value
of medical science and for every patient that I saved, he reveres and
prays to God “ (14). It is interesting that on a papyrus uncovered in
Egypt, the following words are written: “I have come out of the Saiis”,
indicating the pride a physician took in the university from which he
graduated.
Saiis was regarded as one of the most
important scientific centers of the ancient world. The world’s famous
physicians, pilosophers and scientists among them the great Persian Mobed-mathematician,
Ostanes were teaching there. Other universities of Achaemenids are
recorded as ”Borsipa, Arshoi and Militus”. There has been another school
for the training of bureaucrats. It is noteworthy that simultaneously two
academies of science were operating: first the Academy of Hamadan (Hegmatana),
that consisted of one hundred scientists who were introduced or approved
by the king, the second was the Academy of Ardeshir (Arthakhshathra), in
the city of Sardis (Asia Minor).
Parthian Era (247 BCE-224 CE):
Major inscriptions or monuments, records of arts, literature and generally
significant documents are, somehow, conspicuous by their absence. Yet
practical medical knowledge and expertise was carried through into
Sassanian times.
University Of Gondishapour:
This international university was founded in 250 CE, during the Sassanian
era (224-641 CE) by Shahpour 1 in the southwest of Iran, wherein medicine
and other sciences were taught. The professors and students came from
different countries. During the reign of Khosrow Anoushiravan (531-579
A.D.), seven Roman scientists who had been driven out of their country by
emperor Justinianos came to Iran (15) (16). They were welcomed and well
received by Khosrow and were assigned to the university posts. This was
the glorious era of the scientific center. Medical science, anatomy,
dentistry, astronomy, mathematics, philosophy, military commandership,
architecture, craftsmanship, agriculture and irrigation were taught (17).
The scholars and the graduates were later appointed to important
governmental positions. For instance, the minister of health (Iran
Dorostbod), was usually chosen from the best physicians, and minister of
education (Iran Farhangbod), was a scholar of philosophy, logic,
mathematics or psychology. Physicians had to obtain license to practice
medicine (18). To advance the science of medicine, Khosrow dispatched the
famous Iranian physician, Borzoya (Borzouyeh) to India, who brought
medical and scientific books, chess, herbal plants and Indian doctors with
him.
The first world medical conference under the
patronage of Anoushiravan was convened at 550 CE in Cteciphon. Hundreds
of physicians and Mobeds, and physicians from other countries were in
attendance in this congress. Ferdowsi has versified this historical event
in Shah Nameh(19). Because of the reputation of Iranian physicians, during
the reign of Khosrow-Parviz (590-628 A.D.), a physician named
Khordad-Barzin was invited to China and successfully treated the daughter
of queen who suffered from the rapid heart beat (tachycardia). At this
time the sciences of pharmacology and alchemy in Iran were considered “the
most advanced in the world”, and a total of five thousand students
educated in Gondishapour with five hundred scholars teaching in different
scientific fields. The library of the university consisted of eight
floors, 259 halls containing an estimated 400,000 books.
It is worth mentioning that Anoushiravan
himself had a profound interest in philosophy and science. His questions
and conversation with a Greek scholar, Prissin have been recorded in a
book titled: “Answers to the challenges raised by Khosrow, the king of
Iran to the Prissin’s philosophy” (20).
The names of other scientists are to be
mentioned: Mobed Bakhtafarid, scholar of Avesta and Pahlavi, Saroshiar
Bavand, Jabrail Syriani, (a founder and professor of the Gondishapour
hospital), and Tribunos, the personal physician of Anoushiravan who was a
professor in Godishapour(21).
Unfortunately from hundreds of Iranian
scientists only those names are available. The oblivion is due to the
destruction of documents by the Arab invaders.
The Islamic Era:
The Iranian science was interrupted by the Arab invasion (630 A.D.).
Many schools, universities and libraries were destroyed, books were burned
and scholars killed. Due to the extent of cultural calamity the
Khwarezmians after one generation became illiterate (22). Nevertheless,
the Iranian scientists carried on and the science of Persia resurfaced
during the Islamic period. To save the books from the Arab carnage, many
Pahlavi writings were translated into the Arabic, and Iran produced
physicians and scientists as Avicenna, Rhasis and mathematicians as Al
Kharazmi and Khayyam.
The first direct communication between the
university of Gondishapour and the Islamic Baghdad, took place during the
second Abassid Caliph, Abu Jaafar Mansour (136-154 Hijri, 755-774 A.D.).
The director of university, Jirjis was summoned to treat the Caliph. Many
Gondishapour physicians exerted important roles particularly in the
development of Islamic medicine and pharmaceutical science. Many of the
herbal plants named in the Islamic books of medicine are in fact the ones
used in Gondishapour. In 190 Hijri (810 A.D.), the Abassid Caliph, Haroon
el Rashid ordered the construction of a hospital in Baghdad to match the
famous Gondishapour hospital, and physicians from the latter center were
brought to serve in the new hospital. From then on, the Iranian
university began to decline. The Iranian physicians even in the Caliph’s
court conversed in Pahlavi and they were undaunted by his anti-Iranian
sentiments.
During the reign of Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi,
the new university of Gondishapour was founded and it is operating today.
It is interesting that even in our time the herbal medicine is practiced
in Iran. There are Iranian herbal physicians who have their own books
inherited from the generations back. Regrettably they do not pass
information to outsiders.
-
The Ancient Near East
(volume 1), edited by James B. Pritchard, Princeton Printing 1973,
p.138-167
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S.Khodabakhshi,
Medicine in ancient Iran, Doctorate thesis, in Persian
-
A. Jafarey,
Haoma, its original and later identity
-
Avicenna, The
canon of medicine, Book3, part 1, p.65, translation to Persian by
A.Sharafkandi
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M.Najmabadi,
History of medicine in Persian, p.235
-
Webster
Dictionary, 1981 p.529
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M.Shahrvini,
University of Gondishapour in the cradle of history, p.153, in Persian
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A.T.Olmstead, History Of Persian Empire,
p.132
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F.Mehr, Philosophy Of Zartosht in
Persian, p.138
-
M.Najmabadi, History Of Medicine in
Persian, p.233
-
R.Majdari, Medical License And Profession
In Ancient Iran, Borzouyeh, September 95, p.42
-
R.J.Thompson, The VBAC Decade, Medical
Economics, Obstetrics/Gynecology, September 2001 (Editorial)
-
M.Najmabadi, Op.Cit. p.233
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A.Sami, The Trend Of Science During The
Achaemenian Era, in Persian
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A.Sami, Civilization And Culture Of
Sassanians, in Persian
-
The names of the Roman scientists are as
follows: Damescios, Simplikios, Eulampios, Perskianos, Isodoros, Hermias
and Diogene.
-
M.Shahrvini, Op.Cit. p.168-176
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M.Najmabadi, Op.Cit. p.394
-
M.Sharvini, Op.Cit. p.165
-
A.Sami,Civilazation And Culture Of
Sassanians, in Persian
-
M.Shahrvini, Op.Cit. p.220
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Birouni, Aussar el Baghieh
[i]
This paper was posted on vohuman.org on August 18, 2005, and is based
on a paper that appeared in the Summer 2005 issue of the FEZANA
journal.
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